The African Child Soldiers
Introduction
“The child
soldier is described as a ‘pint-sized, tireless baby Rambo who spends his
or hers tender years roaming the battlefields of Africa’s civil wars.”
[1]
“African children are being targeted across the continent as tools of war.” [2]
In today’s day and age, children from all over the world are real soldiers in conflicts instead of playing toy soldiers. These children are being denied their childhood and instead are given a violent and gruesome role to play in brutal conflicts. These children are fighting wars that they had no responsibility in creating. Children are fighting in wars created by their elders. Children are replacing their toys with guns, like AK-47’s and instead of having a chance to attend school, they are being made into killing machines who instantly carry out orders.
This essay shall discuss the global
problem of children being used as soldiers, however it shall focus upon Africa
in particular, what governments are doing about the problem and the best way to
rehabilitate these children as well as reintegrate them into society so as to
enable them to have the best future possible compared to a life of violent
turmoil.
Children are being denied their basic rights of simply being a carefree child and enjoying their childhood by attending school, playing with friends and developing in a secure environment. Unfortunately, many children, worldwide, are abducted from their homes and are forced to join military forcers, either it be government or rebel forces, at gunpoint. These children are traumatised, vulnerable and forced into committing horrific acts of violence, simply to ensure their own survival. The case studies of Sierra Leone and Angola shall be used to describe the current predicament of child soldier and how they are being treated after the conflict has finally come to an end.
Poverty, injustice, displacement, lack of access to education and the proliferation of small arms are just some of the factors that contribute towards the recruitment of children as soldiers. In addition to, children not having outside responsibilities, which inhibit them from becoming child soldiers, unlike their adult counterparts.[3]
Globally, there are approximately 300,000 children under the age of 18, being used as soldiers in 33 current conflicts and this figure continues to rise. In 1999 it was estimated that more than 120,000 children, under the age of 18, were used as soldiers to fight conflicts in Africa. The countries that were the guiltiest of this crime were the following; Algeria, Angola, Burundi, Congo-Brazzaville, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sudan & Uganda. [4]
On average, children as young as seven are recruited, however, there are instances where five year-old children have also been used as soldiers. At such a tender age, it is easy for military commanders to manipulate and train these children into their ideal soldier. Therefore, Human Rights advocates demand that governments who are guilty of using children in their military forces should both admit to this atrocity and then immediately stop it.[5]
Military commanders prefer children because of their emotional and physical immaturity, which enables them to be easily manipulated or ‘brain washed’ into the ‘perfect soldier’. If they are not taught, young children are unable to correctly distinguish between right and wrong, in addition to this, children will carry out orders without questions because they are not aware of the consequences of their actions. The fact is that these children have no other choice when it comes to committing these acts of violence.[6]
Under the influence of drugs, these children can be easily changed into heartless killers, with no notion of the acts that they commit when carrying out orders. During the majority of the time, especially before fighting, these children are under the influence of such drugs as; marijuana, amphetamines, crack cocaine or even a deadly ‘home made’ cocktail made from gunpowder and other local substances. These drugs make the children fearless for combat, even more so than adults, because these children are also trained to feel no emotions when it comes to murder, either it be the enemy or an innocent civilian. These children show no mercy.[7]
Children are the ‘perfect soldier’ for military commanders because of these following qualities; endurance, the ability to survive on both little food and water, they accept and carry out orders, generally without questions. Therefore, children were usually forced into such dangers as the frontlines of open conflict or either sent ahead of other troops to ensure that possible minefields were safe, whilst in rare cases children have also been used in suicide missions. In addition to this, the majority of child soldiers have transformed their situation in the war into a kind of game, because they are unable to fully comprehend or accept the real consequences that war can inflict. In a way, by making the war into a game it is a coping mechanism for these children.[8]
Once recruited these children do various tasks, they are not simply used as soldiers in conflict but also do many other duties, such as being; messengers, guards, cooks, mechanics, porters, spies, labours, human shields, human minesweepers, decoys, servants and also sexual slaves.[9] Girls are also recruited, in most cases, they can make up a total of one third of all child soldiers, however in the majority of cases they are not just recruited to be soldier, but to be either raped or to become ‘wives’ to military commanders. Girls who refuse to become ‘wives’ are murdered in front of other girls so as to make an example of and to make clear that they have no choice in the matter. In addition to this girls are also used to abduct other children for the military forces and also take part in food raids.[10]
This story from a 13 year old girl who was abducted from her home to serve in the rebel group of Burundi, she was constantly raped, as she explains below, she had no other choice;
“I don’t know how many people had sex with me. A man would
come, then another and another. You couldn’t refuse… they said they’d kill you
if you ran away.” [11]
Orphans and refugee children are the must vulnerable for recruitment by military forces. This is because they are the most insecure due to them being poor and having no family support. Therefore, they are the least likely to escape from the military force. The military some times bribe Police officers to find and recruit children. These children are either taken off the streets or abducted from their homes, schools or communities, which sadly is very common throughout the continent. Military commanders, however, have also ensured that abducted children have no reason to escape by forcing them to commit violent atrocities against their own families and friends as well as their community. If children actually do try to escape from the military forces then they are hunted down and killed. [12]
Generally, children are seen as easily replaceable soldiers and of little worth by adult soldiers, this explains why so many children died needlessly. Military commanders kill children for the following reasons; if they refused to join the military force or carry out orders, if they became sick or can not keep up with their adult comrades and also for trying to escape. Some children, who ventured to do any of the previous, are considered very lucky if they are not killed, instead they are punished with terrible beatings or lashes form either their military commanders or even from their fellow comrades.[13]
A common scenario used by military commanders, as I have previously mentioned, was to force the children to murder, either it be their relatives or friends, therefore ensuring that these children have no other place to go, which limits reason for escape. One such chilling incident was experienced by Jonas, a nine year old boy who was forced to kill his own Father in front of his entire village when the rebel group, RENAMO (Mozambique National Resistance Movement) attacked and recruited him.
“[RENAMO soldiers] placed my family in the middle of the
village and said that they would kill us all because my father was a teacher.
They handed me a bayonet and ordered me to kill my father. I did not want to
and started to cry…” [14]
These
horrific ordeals of killing one’s own family member or friends are unimaginable
and sadly many children were placed in that exact predicament. It is of little
wonder why these children suffer from psycho-social trauma. The reason that the
military commanders make the children do this is because this limits the chance
of the children wanting to escape since they have nowhere to go, no one who
wants or cares about them, except for the military force. This then subjects
the children to whatever the military offers to them.[15]
As Jonas describes his dedication to the RENAMO rebel force after he had
committed this brutal act of murder, which caused him to become an outcast from
his village;
“I was a good soldier, and was afraid of nothing, during
combat. All I knew was that death would free me from my nightmare.” [16]
Wherever
an army force would pass, children were recruited, mostly against their will.
Schools were greatly targeted because of their convenience. This story from a
former child soldier in Sierra Leone describes his brutal recruitment
experience by the Revolutionary United front (RUF).
“I was in class, second grade. I was 8 years old. They
threatened to kill us. In front of us, they brought a grown-up man going grey.
They put his hand on a stump and amputated it. They gave me a gun and I refused
it. They fired between my feet. I took the gun.”[17]
This horrific incident is
not unique, it was however, extremely common throughout the military forces
when it came to recruiting children. Children were forced to murder others so
as to ensure their own survival, it is unfair to place all the blame upon these
children for their actions because they had no other alternative- to kill or be
killed.[18]
Military forces, even those of the government, are guilty
of using schools as recruitment centres. They would march up to the schools and
demand that the principal of the school make a list of suitable candidates for
recruitment. However, schools were not the only place that they would forcibly
recruit youngsters from, but also places like the cinema, where there were many
groups of youngsters together.[19]
It is evident that the poorest countries in the world are
the ones who use child soldiers the most. Children all over Africa are used as
child soldiers because Africa is the poorest continent in the world, in
addition to it having over half of its population under the age of 18. Which in
itself explains why children are so frequently recruited, in addition to,
adults increasingly being unable to fight because of other obligations and
responsibilities.[20]
In fact, Sierra Leone has one of the worst records for
using child soldiers in its civil war. Since the war began in 1991, it has been
estimated that at least 4,500 children were used as soldiers to fight for either
side, the government or the rebel group- the Revolutionary United Front (RUF).
The war caused many orphans as well as separations, which therefore made
children more vulnerable for recruitment. Children who joined out of their own
free will were usually enticed with material possession, such as shoes and
clothes, as well as the basic essentials as food and shelter. The rebel group,
the RUF, also provided a form of education whereas the government had not been
able to provide any kind of education to children. Whilst other children were
abducted and forced to torture and murder their own family members as part of
their recruitment process. Once recruited these children were trained and
militarised in captured villages, youth military camps were set up, where
training usually took place in schools. Since the war began, it was estimated
that half of the RUF soldiers were under the age of 14.[21]
The majority of
the children that freely joined the government military forces did so because
they wished to avenge the death of their loved ones, whereas others who were
orphaned and living on the streets saw it as a guarantee in food, shelter,
clothes and acceptance in a kind of ‘family’ environment with their comrades.[22]
“Children all over the
continent have willingly or unwillingly exchanged their school pens and pencils
for rifles and hand grenades to become the ultimate representatives of a lost
generation.” [23]
In
the 1970’s Samora Machel, the late Mozambican leader described children as ‘the
flowers of the revolution’. [24]However,
now these children have ‘blossomed’ into trained killers partly due to such
technological advancements, which make modern weaponry light and easy to use,
especially the AK-47, which even young children can manage. Due to the
proliferation of these small arms throughout the African continent, in addition
to its effectiveness and inexpensiveness of the weapons, they are the ideal
weapons to be used by child soldiers in conflicts.[25]
The
availability of these weapons is a constant problem for all countries involved
because they create an unsafe environment for both children and adults alike
and thus hamper development. Also with so many of these weapons available, it
is likely that conflicts may either intensify or re-ignite, even though governments
are constantly trying to disarm soldiers, especially children. It is extremely
difficult for government to control the flow of small and light weapons into
the country because the majority are illegally smuggled. Such small arms
include; revolvers, self-loading pistols, rifles, submachine guns, in addition
to light weapons that include; heavy machine guns, handheld grenades launches,
portable anti-craft launches and mortars, as well as many others. Child
soldiers use all of these weapons that have just been mentioned, however the
most commonly used is actually the AK-47.[26]
The
child soldiers were intoxicated upon the power that handling such a weapon as
the AK-47 gave them. The weapons allowed the child soldier to be superior over
those, usually adults, who would normally not yield to their demands.
In
Angola, it was found that both the government and the rebel group- UNITA, also
used child soldiers in their military forces. In both military forces as many
as 11,000 child soldiers were reported to be used. The Angolan government chose
to ignore the military service law, which states that 18 years is the minimum
age for voluntary recruitment, whilst 21 years of age is for compulsory
conscription, when they recruited youngsters. The government sent police squads
to schools, markets or wherever else youngsters were to recruit them for their
own military force. The children that were then recruited were sent to remote
regions of the country, where escape was less probable, for their training.[27]
However,
now that the long and brutal civil war has finally come to an end, child
soldiers are now being forgotten. Whereas adult soldiers are now given the
opportunity to assist in demobilisation programs and child soldiers are not,
even though, in most cases, they performed the same duties as their adult
comrades.
Tony Tate, a researcher in
the Children’s Rights Division of Human Rights Watch stated that;
“These boys and girls have been victimised twice. First
they were robbed of their childhood as soldiers, and now they are denied access
to government demobilization programs. These children- especially girls- are
being forgotten in post-conflict Angola.” [28]
Some UNITA soldiers, who were over the age of 18, were
accepted into the national army or Police force, while others were demobilised
with the programs provided by the government. Still, children have been denied
this kind of essential assistance, probably because if the government provided
these services to former child soldiers, then it would be admitting that it had
in fact used child soldier in their military forces and this of course, is in
direct violation of both Angolan and international law.[29]
By denying these former child soldiers essential
assistance in the form of rehabilitation programs that are specifically
tailored to the needs of children, then these children shall face a bleak
future and are at risk once again, of being recruited into military service or
even being involved in other illegal activities. If former child soldiers are
not given the opportunity to successfully reintegrate within their society then
they shall turn to what they know best and that shall be violence. Therefore
crime shall increase as children try to survive on the streets, because they
know of no other way, they have no other alternative other than crime or once
again return to armed conflict.[30]
Former child soldiers need to be given the opportunity to
be educated with much needed skills so as to help in the development process of
their country. Unfortunately this is not the case, these children are Angola’s
future and if they are not demobilised and successfully reintegrated into
society, then Angola has a lot to lose. The government must not deprive these
children, their own future, from educational, vocational and development
opportunities. The reality is that the majority of these former child soldiers
are anxious to trade their violent military past for a bright, educated and
normal future.[31]
In order to ensure the best reintegration possible for
these former child soldiers is to be reunited with their family accepted into
their community and educated. If this occurs, then there is a better chance for
these children to lead a normal life. A key ingredient for the success of the
demobilisation of child soldiers is to ensure that complete peace prevails,
otherwise complete recovery will be difficult.[32]
Former child soldiers who constantly suffered from
beatings, torture and sexual slavery struggle to overcome both their physical
and psychological scares that are brought on by these horrific experiences. It
shall be a long and difficult rehabilitation process for many of these
children.[33]
However, there is still hope, in Angola the World Bank
granted US$ 33 million to help the government with rehabilitation programs
throughout the country. Human Rights Watch hopes that this shall help child
soldiers to be identified and recognised in order to be rehabilitated and then
reintegrated within the society so as to lead a normal life.[34]
In Sierra Leone, in fact many former child soldiers have
been rehabilitated by such organization as UNICEF. The objective of these
rehabilitation programs is to educate, provide employment training, as well as
provide much needed counselling, food and shelter to these traumatised
children. These programs prepare the children for their new life within
society. It is extremely important to these children that they are reunited and
accepted by their families and communities to ensure that reintegration is
easier for them, but, sadly, there are children who are rejected by their
family, even after their rehabilitation.[35]
Another problem that has contributed to the lack of
greater success of rehabilitating former child soldiers is that peace has not
been constant in Sierra Leone. Therefore, there are children who are finding it
difficult in acceptance and with rehabilitation that they return to fight in
the conflict. Some children shall continue to be child soldiers because they
have already lost their family and therefore are tempted with power, drugs and
money.[36]
People who are actively involved with the rehabilitation
of these children and see this scenario repeating many times over and have had
enough. A UNICEF representative, Tejan-Sie stated that; “It is high time
someone tells these soldiers and rebels to stop recruiting innocent kids.” [37]
It is important for governments and rebel leaders to
admit that they have used or are using child soldiers. This would make the
process of demobilisation, rehabilitation and reintegration of child soldiers
much more successful all over the continent. They are aware that it is illegal
and immoral to use children as soldiers, therefore the only solution is to
assume their responsibility and try to amend this terrible injustice and abuse
of children.[38]
The constant conflicts of Africa are steadily corrupting
the youth of an entire continent. As children become child soldiers and have no
other alternative in life, the development and prosperity of an entire
continent is jeopardised. African children are the future and sadly these
conflicts are depriving these children of their present and future, which
therefore deprives an entire continent of its own future.[39]
Throughout the African continent, the majority of
countries have in fact set 18 years, for either it be voluntary or compulsory
conscription, as the minimum age for recruitment into the military forces.
However, there are some exceptions- Angola allows recruitment into the military
force at just 17 years of age, whilst Uganda currently allows children as young
as 13 years or over to enlist, but only under certain circumstances and South
Africa also allows 17 year olds to be recruited, but they are changing it to 18
years, in the near future.[40]
Nevertheless, this does not guarantee that children shall
not be used in conflict situations, even though they are protected under the
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. The simple reason for
this is because these conflicts, which occur in Africa, are only of internal
concern and therefore it does not limit children to participate, if however,
they did become of international concern or involvement, then the Charter would
be enforced.[41]
However, the risk of children becoming involved in
conflict as soldiers can be significantly reduced if governments, international
agencies and the public placed constant pressure upon those governments and
military groups who are responsible for recruiting children into their ranks.[42]
Another way to ensure that children are not recruited into
military forces is by African national governments providing essential
education and proof of age documents to ensure that soldiers are over 18 years
of age, as well as helping displaced children reunite with lost family members,
in addition to, developing programs to provide both a stable employment and
income to African youth.[43]
However, the fundamental key to ensuring that children
are not recruited for military forces is by maintaining a sustainable peace
throughout the entire continent, because ‘without peace there will be no
development in Africa. Without respect for human rights and democracy, there
will be no peace.’ [44]
Even though child soldiers have only become of
international concern since the late 1980s to the early 1990’s, it is however, of
great concern. This important issue needs immediate attention and constant
support, because it shall not be quickly resolved. The longer it takes for
countries to acknowledge their use of child soldiers, the longer it shall take
to resolve the problem and more children shall continue to be exploited by
adults to fight in conflicts that are not theirs.[45]
African children do not belong on the frontline, they
simply belong in schools and with their families, [46]
whilst growing up in a safe and stable environment so that they may become
productive individuals and greatly contribute towards the development of their
society in the future.
To
conclude this essay it is important to note that there are African countries
that have successfully established rehabilitation and reintegration programs
for their child soldiers and they have had many positive results.[47]
The fact is that, all African countries that have now established peace, must
provide rehabilitation and integration programs targeted at children. In
addition to this, it is extremely important that governments enable these
former child soldiers to be educated so that they can have a prosperous future
and contribute to the development of their country.
However,
if such horrific conflicts continue to occur throughout the continent, there is
little hope for Africa to have a stable and prosperous future, because sadly,
the future lies in the hands of this generation of child soldiers. If these
children know nothing better than war, then unfortunately, the future looks
bleak for these countries because war shall continue in this vicious cycle.
Still, there is always hope because some countries have already started to
break this vicious cycle of war!
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[1] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 131
[2] More than 120,000 Child Soldiers Fighting in Africa- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ http://www.hrw.org/press/1999/apr/cs0419.htm
[3] Stop the use of Child Soldiers!- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/maputo-declaration.htm & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 132
[4]Stop the use of Child Soldiers!- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/maputo-declaration.htm & More than 120,000 Child Soldiers Fighting in Africa- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ http://www.hrw.org/press/1999/apr/cs0419.htm &Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm & Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do
[5] Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do & Child Soldiers are Back on the Frontline- African News Service- June 2003- www.comtexnews.com & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 133
[6] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 132 & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm
[7] Sebelebele, Matome- Child Soldiers Remain a Challenge for African Union- African News Service- July 2002- pp 1-2 & US Commits $13 million to Help Former Child Soldiers- African News Service- May 2003- pp 1 @ www.comtexnews.com & Thompson, Carol- Beyond Civil Society- Review of African Political Economy- London- Jun 1999- Vol.26- Issue 80- pp 1-3 & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 131
[8] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 132-3 & Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 3-4 & Childhood denied: child soldiers in Africa- Amnesty International @ http://web.amnesty.org/web/web.nsf/print/childsoldiers-africanchild-eng
[9] Brookes, Adam- Child Soldiers Use Rises Globally- BBC News- 16 Jan 2004 @ http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/africa/3401991.stm & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm & Briggs, Jimmie- Babes with Arms- Essence- New York- May 2004- Vol.35- Issue 1- pp 1-3 & Sowe, Ousman- Security Implications of Small Arms & Child Soldiers in African Conflicts- African News Service- March 2002- pp 1-3 & Mazurana, Dyan & McKay, Susan- Child Soldiers: What about the girls?- Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists- Sep/Oct 2001 @ www.thebulletin.org/issues/2001/so01/so01mazurana.html
[10] Mazurana, Dyan & McKay, Susan- Child Soldiers: What about the girls?- Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists- Sep/Oct 2001 @ www.thebulletin.org/issues/2001/so01/so01mazurana.html & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm & More than 120,000 Child Soldiers Fighting in Africa- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ http://www.hrw.org/press/1999/apr/cs0419.htm
[11]Childhood denied: child soldiers in Africa- Amnesty International @ http://web.amnesty.org/web/web.nsf/print/childsoldiers-africanchild-eng
[12] Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134 & Thompson, Carol- Beyond Civil Society- Review of African Political Economy- London- Jun 1999- Vol.26- Issue 80- pp 1-3
[13] Childhood denied: child soldiers in Africa- Amnesty International @ http://web.amnesty.org/web/web.nsf/print/childsoldiers-africanchild-eng & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm
[14] Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 2
[15] More than 120,000 Child Soldiers Fighting in Africa- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ http://www.hrw.org/press/1999/apr/cs0419.htm
& Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 2 & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ http://www.humanrightswatch.org/campaigns/crp/facts.htm
[16] Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 2
[17] Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 1
[18] Thompson, Carol- Beyond Civil Society- Review of African Political Economy- London- Jun 1999- Vol.26- Issue 80- pp 1-3 & Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 1-3
[19] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134 & Hodges, Tony- Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism-International African Institute- Oxford- 2001- pp 75
[20] Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 3
[21] Onishi, Norimitsu- Children of War in Sierra Leone Try to Start Over- New York Times- New York – May 2002 & Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 4-8 & Richards, Paul- Fighting for the Rain Forest- Oxford- UK- 1996- pp 7 & 28-29 & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134
[22] Ayoti, Mariam- Hunger, hate and the lure of adventure- World Press Review- Jan 1996 & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134- 135 & Paul, Richards- Fighting for the Rain Forest- James Currey- Oxford- 1999- pp 7 & 28
[23] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 132
[24] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 132
[25] Sowe, Ousman- Security Implications of Small Arms & Child Soldiers in African Conflicts- African News Service- March 2002- pp 1-3 & Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 1-2 & Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do &
[26] Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134 & Stohl, Rachel- Under the Gun- African Security Review- Vol. 11- No. 3- 2002- pp 1-2 & Brookes, Adam- Child Soldiers Use Rises Globally- BBC News- 16 Jan 2004 @ http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/africa/3401991.stm
[27] Hodges, Tony- Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism-International African Institute- Oxford- 2001- pp 75 & Maier, Karl- Into the House of the Ancestors- John Wiley & Sons- New York- 1998- pp 134 & Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm
[28] Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm
[29] Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm & Hodges, Tony- Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism-International African Institute- Oxford- 2001- pp 75
[30] UN: Disarmament, Demobilisation & Reintegration- M2 Presswair- March 2001- www.presswire.net & Facts about Child Soldiers- Human Rights Watch- 2004 @ Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm
[31] At a glance: Angola- UNICEF- Luanda- Jan 2002 @ www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_508.html & Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm & Stop the use of Child Soldiers!- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/maputo-declaration.htm
[32] Rehabilitation of Child Soldiers Critical- UNICEF- March 2003 @ http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200303100824.html & Childhood denied: child soldiers in Africa- Amnesty International @ http://web.amnesty.org/web/web.nsf/print/childsoldiers-africanchild-eng & At a glance: Angola- UNICEF- Luanda- Jan 2002 @ www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_508.html & Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm
[33] Childhood denied: child soldiers in Africa- Amnesty International @ http://web.amnesty.org/web/web.nsf/print/childsoldiers-africanchild-eng
[34] At a glance: Angola- UNICEF- Luanda- Jan 2002 @ www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_508.html & Child Soldier Forgotten in Angola- Human Rights Watch- New York- April 2003 @ www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/angola042903.htm
[35] Rehabilitation of Child Soldiers Critical- UNICEF- March 2003 @ http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200303100824.html & At a glance: Angola- UNICEF- Luanda- Jan 2002 @ www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_508.html
[36] Ayoti, Mariam- Hunger, hate and the lure of adventure- World Press Review- Jan 1996 & Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 4-6
[37] Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 6
[38] Stop the use of Child Soldiers!- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/maputo-declaration.htm
[39] Sebelebele, Matome- Child Soldiers Remain a Challenge for African Union- African News Service- July 2002- pp 1-2
[40] More than 120,000 Child Soldiers Fighting in Africa- Human Rights Watch- April 1999 @ www.hrw.org/press/1999/apr/cs0419.htm
[41] Ayoti, Mariam- Hunger, hate and the lure of adventure- World Press Review- Jan 1996
[42] Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do
[43] Sebelebele, Matome- Child Soldiers Remain a Challenge for African Union- African News Service- July 2002- pp 1-2 & Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do
[44] Child Soldiers: Amnesty International’s Human Rights Concerns- Amnesty International – 2004 @ www.amnestyusa.org/child_soldier/index.do
[45] Briggs, Jimmie- Babes with Arms- Essence- New Yourk- May 2004- Vol.35- Issue 1- pp 1-3 & Skinner, Elliott- Child Soldier in Africa- International Journal on World Peace- June 1999- pp 1-4
[46] Briggs, Jimmie- Babes with Arms- Essence- New York- May 2004- Vol.35- Issue 1- pp 1-3
[47] If the reader is interested in knowing about successful child soldiers rehabilitations then Mozambique is a good sources, here are two good websites;
Child Soldiers, Loving Parents? @ www.cumc.columbia.edu/news/in-vivo/vol3_iss04_mar_04/family_health.html
Child Soldier Projects @ www.ginie.org/ginie-crises-links/childsoldiers/mozambique2.html